List of Figures
1.1 UK energy flow chart
1.2 Grid balancing techniques
1.3 UK electricity capacity margins to 2017
1.4 Storage compared to other grid balancing techniques
1.5 Slow progress of FCVs towards mass production
2.1 Air separation unit
2.2 Air liquefier
2.3 Schematic of a liquid air energy storage system
2.4 The Highview Power Storage pilot plant in Slough
2.5 Schematic of liquid air energy storage device
2.6 Schematic of Cryogen Set
2.7 The Dearman Cycle
2.8 Specific work from the expansion of liquid
2.9 Combined cycle gas turbine
2.10 Recaptured diesel cycle with high compression ratio and isothermal compression
3.1 Projections of future generation mix in 2050 compared with 2011
3.2 Forecast increase in UK electricity demand
3.3 Maximum and minimum daily demand profiles in 2011 and forecast for 2030 and 2050
3.4 Forecast of additional capacity and additional fast response plant to balance the network
3.5 Projected future role of storage in a low carbon power network
3.6 Effect of efficiency on the value of storage in 2030 and 2050
3.7 Illustration of the role of storage is capturing excess wind generation
3.8 Four potential grid balancing solutions
3.9 Power rating and duration of various gridscale storage technologies
3.10 Illustration of main components of liquid air energy storage facility.
3.11 Diagram of the cryogenic energy storage gas peaking plant
3.12 UK LNG imports, history and 3 future scenarios. Source: National Grid
3.13 Isle of Grain LNG terminal
4.1 UK energy consumption by end use, 2011
4.2 Liquid air vehicle 1903
4.3 MDI compressed air car
4.4 Work produced by adiabatic and isothermal expansion of 1kg of liquid air
4.5 Thermodynamic cycle of the Dearman Engine
4.6 Incremental and disruptive technology innovation
4.7 Recuperated Gas Turbine
4.8 Recuperated diesel cycle with high compression ratio and isothermal compression
4.9 Carnot efficiency of liquid air and ORC
4.10 Direct refrigeration by liquid nitrogen
4.11 Power and energy densities of selected energy storage technologies
5.1 Map of UK waste heat resource
5.2 Theoretical maximum efficiency of waste heat conversion to work
5.3 The impact of renewable intermittency on hourly power pricing
6.1 Maps of major UK industrial gas production sites
6.2 Per kilometre of Dearman engine car compared to ICE and EV
7.1 Potential liquid air suppliers and users
8.1 NAIGT Technology Roadmap
9.1 Oxygen and nitrogen phase diagram
9.2 EIGA LTIR 1977-2012
9.3 LTIR comparison between EIGA and related industries and companies
9.4 EIGA LTIR accidents by cause. Source
10.1 Generating Mix evolution in 2050
10.2 The impact of storage on emissions with 40GW wind capacity
10.3 Reducing emission factors in Grassroots scenario